Umlando yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic. Isihloko kanye ukubaluleka Organic Chemistry

Bambalwa abantu abacabanga uyini umsebenzi wesayensi yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic empilweni yomuntu yesimanje. Kodwa omkhulu, kunzima overestimate. Ekuseni, lapho umuntu evuka futhi uya ukugeza, futhi kahle kuze kuhlwe, lapho elala, wabuye ezihambisana imikhiqizo yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic. Isixubho, izingubo, iphepha, izimonyo, ifenisha and design ingaphakathi, nokunye okuningi - konke lokhu kusinika-ke. Kodwa uma kwakungenjalo, futhi kwemithi organic ukwazi kancane kakhulu.

Ake sibone step indlela savela ngesinyathelo emlandweni wesayensi yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic.

1. Isikhathi yentuthuko ngokuphelele kwaze kwaba sekhulwini XIV, ngokuthi zemvelo.

2. XV - XVII ekhulwini - ekuqaleni ukuthuthukiswa noma iatrochemistry alchemy.

3. Century XVIII - XIX - ukubusa inkolelo-mbono yokuziphendukela vitalism.

4. XIX - XX leminyaka - ukuthuthukiswa olunzulu, isigaba ngokwesayensi.

Qala noma isigaba engokwemvelo ukuthuthukiswa yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic

Lesi sigaba siqukethe kakhulu ukuvela nomqondo imisuka zamakhemikhali. Futhi umsuka ahambe aze afike emuva njengoba iRoma lasendulo, lapho abahlala uyakwazi ngafunda ukwenza udayi Umbala izinto futhi izingubo ngezinto zemvelo okuluhlaza - amaqabunga neziqu zezitshalo. Lawa kwakungamadodana indigo, enika umbala deep blue, futhi alizorin staining ngokoqobo bonke shades namanzi futhi ezikhangayo orange futhi ebomvu. Ngokungavamile abakhileyo emincanyana bezizwe ezihlukahlukene ngesikhathi esifanayo futhi ngafunda indlela yokuvumelanisa uthole uviniga, ukwenza imimoya kusukela sucrose kanye izinto isitashi-equkethe Lokudabuka isitshalo.

Kuyaziwa ukuthi ukudla eyejwayelekile isicelo lesi sikhathi zomlando babe ezilwane, zemifino amafutha kanye inhlaka ezisetshenziswa labapheki kanye nezinyanga. Futhi e ekuphileni kwansuku zonke ubuthi ezihlukahlukene kwakumelwe uvalwe njengoba ubudlelwane isikhali esiyinhloko vnutriusobnyh. Zonke lezi zinto kukhona imikhiqizo yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic.

Kodwa, ngeshwa, njengoba enjalo, umqondo wegama elithi "i-chemistry" alikho nhlobo, futhi ekutadisheni izinto ezithile ukuze acacise izakhiwo kanye nokusungulwa akuzange kwenzeke. Ngakho-ke, le nkathi libizwa nokuguqulwa. Zonke okutholakele babe okungahleliwe, nemvelo unfocused yamanani yabathengi. Lokhu kwaqhubeka kwaze kwaba sekhulwini esilandelayo.

iatrochemistry isikhathi - ukuthuthukiswa isiqalo othembisayo

Ngempela, kwakunjalo XVI - XVII eminyaka baqala ukuvela izethulo oqondile yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali njengoba isayensi. Ngokusebenzisa umsebenzi ososayensi isikhathi esithile kuye kwakhishwa izinto eziphilayo yasungulwa apharathasi elula ziphuzo zazihluzwa futhi Sublimation izidakamizwa wasebenzisa imikhumbi ezikhethekile chemical kwasani izinto ukuze ukwehlukana yemvelo imikhiqizo izithako.

I yagxila langaleso sikhathi laliwumfuziselo umuthi. Isifiso uthole imithi edingekayo kuye kwaholela yokuthi lesi sitshalo wema amafutha abalulekile kanye nezinye izithako eluhlaza. Ngakho, uKarl Scheele zazitholakala acid eziningana organic izinto zokusetshenziswa yemifino:

• malic;
• lemon;
• gallic;
• ubisi;
• oxalic.

On ekutadisheni izitshalo kanye nokwabiwa lezi acid usosayensi wathatha iminyaka engu-16 (ngo-1769 kuya 1785). Lesi kwakuyisiqalo yentuthuko, wabeka izisekelo yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic, okuyinto njengoba kungaba njalo egatsheni yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali kutholakele futhi kwakhishwa okuthiwa kamuva (ekuqaleni XVIII leminyaka) ngokuqondile.

Esikhathini esifanayo Ephakathi GF egqanyisiwe Rueil zinhlayiya ka uric acid esuka urea. Okunye bamakhemikhali succinic acid etholwe inhlaka, tartaric acid. Iyasebenza ezivamile kuhlanganisa indlela ziphuzo zazihluzwa ezomile yezitshalo nezilwane izinto, by okuyinto etholakala acetic acid, diethyl elithi ether, ukhuni utshwala.

Waqala kanjalo-ke ukuthuthukiswa kakhulu organic chemical umkhakha esikhathini esizayo.

Vis Vitalis, noma "amandla okuphila"

XVIII - XIX leminyaka ngoba yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali ngendlela engokwemvelo kakhulu-nesibaya ezimbili: kulolu hlangothi, kukhona eziningi nokwatholakala ukuthi babe value elikhulu. Ngakolunye, isikhathi eside, ukukhula kanye ekuqongeleleni ulwazi elungile imibono efanele engasenamahloni imfundiso yokuziphendukela evelele vitalism.

Lo mbono waqamba futhi wachaza main Jens Jakobs Berzelius, ngubani ngesikhathi esifanayo yena ngokwakhe unikeze, futhi incazelo yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic (ngonyaka ngqo ayaziwa, noma 1807, noma 1808). Ngokusho nezinhlinzeko zalesi mbono, izinto eziphilayo zingase zimiswe kuphela eziphilayo (izitshalo nezilwane, kuhlanganise nabantu), njengoba eziphilayo kuphela elikhethekile elithi "amandla okuphila" evumela lezi izinto ezikhiqizwa. Nakuba izinto wezinto uthole organic ngokuphelele kwenteke, ngobe ziyimikhiqizo ezingaphili, okungezona oluvuthayo, ngaphandle vis Vitalis.

Ososayensi efanayo ngezigaba wokuqala kuyo yonke eyaziwa ngesikhathi zezakhi ku wezinto ezingaphili (non-eziphilayo, zonke izinto efana amanzi kanye nosawoti) organic (bukhoma, lezo ezifana namafutha omnqumo ushukela) siphakamisiwe. Futhi Berzelius lokuqala oqokiwe ngokukhethekile ukuthi i-chemistry organic enjalo. Ukunqunywa kwaba: isigaba yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali ukuthi etadisha izinto ethathwe eziphilayo.

Phakathi nale nkathi, ososayensi lwenteke kalula ukuguqulwa organic compounds ku wezinto ezingaphili, isib by amandla omlilo. Nokho, kungenzeka reconversion sanoma yini ayikaziwa okwamanje.

Ukudalelwa abakholelwa ukuthi, ukuthi kwaba umfundi Jens Berzelius Fridrih Veler nomthelela ekuqaleni wokugoqa inkolelo-mbono yokuziphendukela uthisha wakhe.

Usosayensi German abasebenza cyanide ezibangela futhi kwelinye ucwaningo olwenziwa ukuthola zinhlayiya uphatha Ngokufana uric acid. Ngenxa yalokho, kwenziwe ucwaningo olunzulu ngaphezulu wathola ngempela ukuthi wakwazi ukuthola udaba eziphilayo kusuka wezinto ezingaphili, ngaphandle vis Vitalis. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi obusolisayo Berzelius, waphoqwa ukuba sivume leli qiniso elingenakuphikwa. Ngakho-ke okubhekana komvimbo wokuqala kuya ukubukwa vitalistic. Umlando yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic waqala athole umfutho.

okutholakele eziningana, vitalism ochotshoziwe

Wöhler impumelelo ilethe bamakhemikhali kwekhulu XVIII, ngakho waqala ukuhlolwa okwandile ucwaningo ukuze bathole izinto eziphuma ezintweni eziphilayo ngaphandle kwesibeletho. syntheses ezinjalo ezibucayi futhi ebaluleke kakhulu bebelokhu eziningana.

1. 1845 G. - Adolf Kolbe okwakukhona umfundi Wöhler, uphatha elula inorganics C, H _{2 O 2} zamagama multistage Imininingwane ukuthola acetic acid, okuyinto izinto eziphilayo.
2. 1812, Konstantinom Kirhgofom lwenteke glucose zamagama yesitashi acid.
3. 1820 Anri Brakonno amaprotheni denatured acid bese ziphathwe nitric acid kanye ingxube eyatholakala kusukela kuqala 20 amino acid kwemiqondo kamuva - glycine.
4. 1809 Michel Chevreul watadisha Ukwakheka kwamafutha, uzama ukuqhekeza wabayisa izingxenye zalo ephambili. Ngenxa yalokho, wanikwa isigamu fatty acid kanye glycerol. 1854, Zhan Bertlo baqhubeka ukusebenza Chevrel glycerol futhi kushunqe uthuli stearic acid. Umphumela - amafutha, ncamashi iphindwa isakhiwo compounds zemvelo. Kamuva, wakwazi ukuthola izincwadi nezinye amafutha kanye amafutha, okuyinto wawuthe ezahlukene ukwakheka kwama-molecule kusukela analogue zemvelo. Lokho kuboniswa ukuthi kungenzeka ukuthola compounds entsha organic kakhulu egunjini lokucwaninga esibhedlela.
5. J. Berthelot kwemiqondo methane kuyi-hydrogen sulfide (H ₂ S) ne-carbon disulfide (CS _2).
6. 1842 Zinin wakwazi synthesize le aniline kusukela nitrobenzene udayi. Kamuva wakwazi ukuthola izincwadi eziningi aniline nodayi.
7. A. Bayer kudala laboratory ayo, okuyinto eye yaba zamagama asebenzayo futhi ngempumelelo udayi organic, efana yemvelo: alizarin, indigoid, antrohinonovye, xanthene.
8. 1846 zamagama nitroglycerin ososayensi Sobrero. Wabuye wazakhela izinhlobo theory, othi kungase izinto ezifanayo amanye wezinto ezingaphili futhi okulungiselelwe esikhundleni ama-athomu ye-hydrogen e isakhiwo.
9. 1861 A. M. Butlerov Sweetener kuhlelwe umqondo we-formalin. Bakhandwa washayelwa yimibandela theory isakhiwo amakhemikhali organic compounds olufanele namuhla.

Zonke le miphumela ziye zakhomba isihloko yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic - carbon futhi compounds yayo. okutholakele ephakeme baye igxile izindlela zamakhemikhali kwamakhemikhali organic, ukusungula uhlobo ekuxhumaneni electronic, futhi isakhiwo zezakhi.

Eyesibili uhhafu we XIX futhi XX leminyaka - yisikhathi global chemical okutholakele

Umlando yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic ngokuhamba kwesikhathi usebhekene zonke izinguquko ezinkulu. Sebenza ososayensi abaningi phezu izindlela izinqubo zangaphakathi ku-molecule ukusabela izinhlelo luthele izithelo ezibonakalayo Imiphumela elithelayo. Ngakho, ngo-1857, uFriedrich Kekule ithuthukiswe imfundiso yokuziphendukela Valence. Iphinde kungokwalabo sokunconywa omkhulu - kokutholakala isakhiwo yezinhlayiya we elimnandi hydrocarbon -benzene. Ngesikhathi esifanayo A. M. Butlerov washayelwa imfundiso yokuziphendukela isikhundla isakhiwo compounds e okukhomba tetravalence carbon futhi lo mkhuba ukuba khona isomers, futhi isomers.

VV Markovnikov futhi A. M. Zaytsev lokumba cwaningo wokusabela izindlela e udaba eziphilayo futhi kwakha iqoqo imithetho ezichaza lezi zinhlelo futhi qinisekisa. Ngo 1873 - 1875 iminyaka. I. Wislicenus, Van't Hoff futhi Le Bel ukutadisha ilungiselelo ngekwendzawo zama-athomu amangqamuzana, embule ukuba khona stereo-isomers, futhi okhokho wonke isayensi - stereochemistry. Baningi abantu ezahlukene ezihilelekile kudalwa emkhakheni wesayensi yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic, okuyinto esinalo namhlanje. Ngakho-ke, i-chemistry organic, ososayensi ziphawuleka.

Ukuphela XIX futhi XX leminyaka - yisikhathi ukutholakala yomhlaba wonke embonini eyenza imithi, upende umkhakha, i-chemistry quantum. Cabanga ukuvulwa, ukuqinisekisa seqiwe yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic.

1. 1881 Conrad M. futhi M. Gudtseyt imithi yokubulala izinzwa kwemiqondo, veronal futhi salicylic acid.
2. 1883 L. uKnorr wathola antipyrine.
3. 1884 F. Stoll safike pyramidon.
4. 1869 Hyatt abazalwane won fibre wokuqala owenziwe umuntu.
5. 1884 D. Eastman kwemiqondo ifilimu Celluloid.
6. 1890 wathola cuprammonium fibre L. Depassi.
7. 1891 Charles Cross nozakwabo safike Rayon.
8. 1897 F. Miescher futhi Buchner eyasungulwa imfundiso yokuziphendukela namachibi yemvelo (ukuvutshelwa cell-mahhala watholwa futhi enzyme njengoba biocatalysts).
9. 1897 F. Miescher wathola acid nucleic.
10. Ukuqala XX leminyaka - chemistry entsha compounds organometallic.
11. 1917 Lewis wavula imvelo electronic izibopho zamakhemikhali molecule.
12. 1931 Hückel - umsunguli izindlela quantum kwamakhemikhali.
13. Of 1931-1933. Laymus Pauling olungisisa theory resonance, futhi kamuva osebenza yakubonisa okushiwo izitayela zamakhemikhali.
14. 1936 Inayiloni kwemiqondo.
15. Of 1930-1940. AE Arbuzov kuphakamisa ukuthuthukiswa Organophosphorus compounds okuyizinto ngesisekelo sokuthi kukhiqizwe zepulasitiki, imithi, futhi zinambuzane.
16. 1960 Academician Nesmeyanov nabafundi wadala ukudla kuqala zokwenziwa egunjini lokucwaninga esibhedlela.
17. 1963 Du Vinho ethola insulini, okuyinto kuyisinyathelo esikhulu phambili kwezokwelapha.
18. 1968 Indian HG Qur'an wakwazi ukuthola isakhi elula ukuthi wasiza sokuqonda isimiso sezakhi zofuzo.

Ngakho, ukubaluleka yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic ezimpilweni zabantu nje cwe. Plastics, polymers, endwangwini, upende varnishes, iraba, iraba, PVC izinto, polypropylene kanye polyethylene, kanye nezinye izinto eziningi zalezi zinsuku, ngaphandle okuyinto namuhla awulona ukuphila kungenzeka, indlela eyinkimbinkimbi ukuze ukutholakala yayo. Amakhulu ososayensi baye benza eminyakeni yabo umsebenzi onzima, ngakho kwakukhona umlando jikelele ukuthuthukiswa yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic.

Izinto zesimanje simiso organic compounds

Esekwenzile indlela omkhulu futhi kunzima ukuthuthukiswa yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic, futhi manje akemi namanje. Kunezinhlobo ezingaphezu kuka-10 Mill. Connections, futhi le nombolo luyanda njalo ngonyaka. Ngakho-ke, kukhona ilungiselelo isakhiwo esihleliwe izinto esinika yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic. Ukwahlukanisa organic compounds uvezwa etafuleni.

Ikilasi compounds	izici kwesakhiwo	Ifomula jikelele
Hydrocarbon (yakhiwa kuphela carbon ne-hydrogen-athomu omoya-)	te (kuphela sigma esibophezelayo.); unsaturated (i-sigma nokuxhumana pi.); acyclic; eyindilinga.	Alkanes C n H 2N + 2; Alkenes, cycloalkanes C n H 2N; Alkynes, alkadienes, C n H 2N-2; Arena C 6 H 2N-6.
Izinto equkethe ezahlukene ama-athomu hetero eqenjini main	halogens; OH iqembu (alcohols futhi phenols); yokwenza iqembu ROR (ethers).	R-Hal; R-OH; ROR.
carbonyl compounds	aldehydes; ketones; quinones.	RC (H) = O
Compounds oqukethe iqembu carboxyl	carboxylic acid; esters.	R-COOH; R-COOR.
Compounds equkethe sulphur, nitrogen noma phosphorus e-molecule	Kungaba eyindilinga noma acyclic	-
compounds organometallic	Carbon eziboshiwe ngqo nezinye isici, kodwa hhayi i-hydrogen	C-E
compounds organometallic	Carbon banamathele kwensimbi	Nge-Me
compounds heterocyclic	Ngo umjikelezo isakhiwo ezisekelwe namalungu heteroatoms	-
izinto zemvelo	Elikhulu polymer ezincane ezakha zezakhi yemvelo	amaphrotheni, acid nucleic, amino acid, alkaloids nokunye okunjalo. d.
polymers	Izinto kokuba isisindo yamangqamuzana okusezingeni eliphezulu, okuncike amayunithi monomeric	n (-RRR-)

Ucwaningo lonke ezihlukahlukene izinto futhi ukusabela lapho zingena, futhi isihloko yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic namuhla.

Izinhlobo izibopho zamakhemikhali nezinto eziphilayo

Ngoba noma yisiphi compounds libhekene elektronnostaticheskie ekuxhumaneni ngaphakathi molecule zazo ivezwa khona engokwemvelo covalent elimboze izindawo ezibandayo kanye non-polar covalent izibopho. Zezakhi organometallic bangase bafinyelele ababuthakathaka nokuxhumana ionic.

Covalent ukuxhumana nonpolar zenzeka phakathi C-C ukusabela zonke amangqamuzana angokwemvelo. Covalent ekusebenzisaneni polar sici for ama-athomu ezahlukene-nonmetal e-molecule. Ngokwesibonelo, C-Hal, CH, CO, CN, CP, CS. Lena bonke ngenxa chemistry organic, okuyinto akhona for kumiswa compounds.

Ukwehluka kwi-zezakhi of amafomula engokwemvelo

Amafomula ezivame kakhulu ngesibalo amalungu kwakwakhe ngokuthi enokwehla. amafomula ezinjalo zikhona ngayinye ketshezi wezinto ezingaphili. Kodwa uma kuziwa endabeni ezilandelwayo amafomula kwamakhemikhali organic, ososayensi kwadingeka abhekane nezinkinga ezimbalwa. Okokuqala, isisindo abaningi babo, namakhulu noma ngisho izinkulungwane. Kunzima ukunquma ifomula enokwehla ngoba into elikhulu kangaka. Ngakho-ke, nge sikhathi kwakungekho ukwahlukanisa yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic njengoba ukuhlaziywa organic. abasunguli balo kubhekwe abacwaningi Liebig, Wöhler, Gay-Lussac futhi Berzelius. Bona, kanye imisebenzi A. M. Butlerova, ukubonakala ukuba khona isomers - compounds ukuthi ube ukwakheka efanayo qualitative ambalwa, kodwa kuhluke isakhiwo nezakhiwo engqamuzaneni. Yingakho isakhiwo organic compounds uzwakalise namuhla akuyona enokwehla takhi ifomula ephelele noma olujiyile kwesakhiwo.

Lezi zakhiwo - alandisa ehlukile ezaziyophawuleka chemistry organic. Amafomula zilotshiwe usebenzisa uyilahla, luyisibopho zamakhemikhali. isib, i-butane wafingqa ifomula kwesakhiwo kuyodingeka ifomu CH ₃ - CH ₂ - CH ₂ - CH _3. ifomula Okugcwele kwesakhiwo ezibonisa zonke izibopho zamakhemikhali ekhona engqamuzaneni.

Futhi kukhona indlela ukuqopha amafomula yamangqamuzana organic compounds. Ubheka kuyafana enokwehla kusukela wezinto ezingaphili. Ukuze i-butane, isibonelo, kuyoba: C ₄ H _10. Okungukuthi, abangabantwana ifomula yamangqamuzana kunikeza umbono nje mayelana nokubunjwa qualitative ambalwa of kwakwakhe. elichaza Bezakhiwe isibopho e-molecule, ngakho ingasetshenziswa ukubikezela ukuziphatha esizayo nezakhi ezithile zamakhemikhali we ketshezi. Lawa izici has yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic. Amafomula abhalwe nganoma yiluphi uhlobo, yilowo nalowo kubo kuyiqiniso.

Izinhlobo ukusabela kwamakhemikhali organic

Kukhona ngezigaba ezithile uhlobo organic-chemistry ukusabela okukhulu okwenzekayo. Futhi ezinye zalezi ngeengaba, ngezizathu ezahlukene. Cabanga ayinhloko.

Izindlela zika zamakhemikhali izindlela kumiswa kuphulwa yabo bonke abakhululekileyo nabayizigqila:

• noma homolytic olukhulu;
• heterolytic noma ionic.

Ukusabela izinhlobo kugucuka:

• uchungechunge olukhulu;
• nucleophilic esikhundleni aliphatic;
• nucleophilic esikhundleni elimnandi;
• ukuqedwa ukuphendula;
• Ngaphezu electrophilic;
• ukufingqa;
• cyclization;
• esikhundleni electrophilic;
• ukuphendula rearrangement.

Ngendlela run yokusabela (Ukuqalwa) naku-oda kinetic ukuthi bayavuma ngezinye izikhathi bahlukaniswe. Lawa izici eziyisisekelo ukusabela esesikhundleni yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic. Umbono wokuthi ichaza imininingwane inkambo yokusabela chemical ngamunye, uvulekele phakathi kwekhulu XX, futhi waqinisekisa kulekelelwa namanje nge njalo kutholakala into entsha futhi zamagama.

Kufanele kuqashelwe ukuthi jikelele organic-chemistry ukusabela ukuqhubeka ngaphansi kwezimo ezibophayo kakhulu kunalezo kwamakhemikhali wezinto ezingaphili. Lokhu kungenxa kuqiniswa okukhulu amangqamuzana angokwemvelo ngenxa ukwakheka ngaphakathi futhi zinokuxhumana okuqinile aphakathi. Ngakho-ke, cishe awekho ukuphendula kuqedile ngaphandle kokuba izinga lokushisa, ingcindezi noma ukufakwa kwesicelo ekwandeni.

Inchazelo yesimanje ye-Organic Chemistry

Ngokuvamile, ukuthuthukiswa yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic kwenzekani ngendlela olunzulu emakhulwini ambalwa eminyaka. It zanqwabelana omningi ulwazi mayelana izinto, izakhiwo zabo nendlela ezisabela ngayo lapho bangajoyina. izigidi kwemiqondo ewusizo futhi umane kudingeka izinto zokusetshenziswa asetshenziswe ehlukahlukene, ubuchwepheshe kanye nezimboni. Umqondo wesayensi yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali organic namuhla ibonwa njengoba entweni enkulu futhi ezinkulu, eziningi futhi uyinkimbinkimbi, ahlukahlukene futhi abalulekile.

Ngaleso sikhathi, le ncazelo lokuqala kulesi sigaba omkhulu yokuthakwa kwamakhemikhali kwaba ini okwamnika Berzelius: kungcono i-chemistry ukuthi etadisha izinto behlukene eziphilayo. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, isikhathi esiningi isidlulile, bathole okuningi, futhi waqaphela futhi kudalulwe inani elikhulu izindlela nezinqubo vnutrihimicheskih. Ngenxa yalokho, namuhla kukhona umqondo ezahlukene lokho chemistry organic. Ukunqunywa Niphiwe: chemistry carbon futhi compounds yayo, futhi izindlela zabo zokubumba ka zamagama.