Ukunqunywa ama-athomu nezinhlayiyana ezincane. Incazelo athomu kuze 1932

Kusukela esikhathini sasendulo maphakathi nekhulu le-18, isayensi yayibuswa umbono wokuthi i-athomu - nezinhlayiya udaba lokuthi akakwazi ukuba ahlukaniswe. usosayensi oyiNgisi futhi semvelo, no D. Dalton wanikeza incazelo ye-athomu njengoba okuyingxenye kencani yesici zamakhemikhali. MV Lomonosov in emfundisweni zayo atomic yamangqamuzana wakwazi ukunikeza incazelo ye-athomu kanye-molecule. Yena wayeqiniseka ngokuthi molecule alibiza ngokuthi "corpuscles", eyakhiwa "izakhi" - ama-athomu - futhi ziyahamba njalo.

D. I. Mendeleev ukuthi le subunit izinto ezakha kulomhlaba, kugcina yonke impahla yayo kuphela uma ingekho ngaphansi division. Kulesi sihloko, Sichaza into njengoba microcosm ye-athomu, futhi ukufunda ngezici zawo.

Ingemuva inkolelo-mbono yokuziphendukela isakhiwo yama-athomu

Ekhulwini le-19, kube ubhekwa njengomuntu isitatimende kwi indivisibility ye-athomu. Ososayensi abaningi bakholwa ukuthi izinhlayiya elilodwa isici chemical ngaphansi kwanoma yiziphi izimo asikwazi siguqulelwa athomu nezinye izakhi. Le mibono yayingekhona isisekelo eyayisekelwe kwencazelo athomu kuze 1932. Ekupheleni kwekhulu le-19 e isayensi ziye etholakale eliyisisekelo lokuthi ukushintshwa lo mbono. Okokuqala, ngo-1897 i-physics British J. J. Thomson ayezifundile electron. Leli qiniso ngokuyinhloko washintsha imibono yososayensi wezwakala mayelana ingxenye indivisible timphawu zamakhemikhali.

Kanjani ukufakazela ukuthi i-athomu isakhiwo eziyinkimbinkimbi

Ngisho nangaphambi kokuba kwatholakala i-electron , ososayensi ngazwi linye uyavuma ukuthi ama-athomu babe ngaphandle kwemali. Khona-ke, kwatholakala ukuthi electron zihlukaniswa kalula ukusuka kunoma iyiphi ikhemikhali isici oyifunayo. Bona zingatholakala elangabini, zingabantu abathwali kagesi, bekhipha izinto ngesikhathi x-ray ngemisebe.

Kodwa uma electron bayingxenye zonke ngothi lwabo, futhi ama-athomu omubi icala, ngaleyo ndlela, ngo-athomu kukhona ezinye izinhlayiya ukuthi nakanjani abe necala omuhle, ngaphandle kwalokho ama-athomu bekungeke kube kagesi hlangothi. Ukusiza ukuchaza isakhiwo athomu kuye kwasiza into ngokomzimba njengoba radioactivity. Wabanikeza nencazelo efanele ye-athomu e physics, bese i-chemistry.

Kanti futhi le misebe engabonakali

French physics A. Becquerel kwaba ngowokuqala ukuchazela lo mkhuba ekushayweni athomu ezinye izakhi zamakhemikhali, ongaboni imisebe engabonakali. Bona ionize pass emoyeni ngokusebenzisa impahla, okubangela blackening izingqimba lokushicilela. Kamuva, i-Curies futhi uRutherford wathola ukuthi izinto radioactive siguqulelwa athomu nezinye izakhi zamakhemikhali (ezifana uranium - neptunium).

emisebeni Radioactive kuyinto nonuniform ukubunjwa:-alpha izinhlayiya, beta izinhlayiya, gamma ray. Ngakho, lo mkhuba radioactivity wafakazela ukuthi ishadi lesikhathi salezi izakhi izinhlayiya akheke eziyinkimbinkimbi. Leli qiniso okubangelwa izinguquko ezenziwe yencazelo ye-athomu. Yini izinhlayiya kuyinto athomu, enikezwa uRutherford etholwe amaqiniso amasha ngokwesayensi? Impendulo yalo mbuzo kwaba ohlongozwayo imodeli isazi yenuzi ye-athomu, owawuthi emhlabeni omuhle-charged nucleus electron ukuhambisa.

Liyaziphikisa uRutherford imodeli

Imfundiso yokuziphendukela usosayensi, naphezu kwesimo yayo enkulu, ayikwazanga elibanzi ukuchaza athomu. okutholakele bawo babeyizimpisi okuphambene nemithetho eyisisekelo wokushintsha kwamandla nokwakheka kwezinto, owawuthi konke electron ezungeza i-nuclei ulahlekelwa amandla abo futhi, njengoba kungaba njalo, manje noma ngokuhamba kwesikhathi kuyomelwe awe phezu kwakhe. Atom kulokhu ubhujiswe. Lokhu empeleni akunjalo, kusukela amakhemikhali nezinhlayiyana zenziwa kuyiphi, khona emvelweni isikhathi eside. Ngaphandle kwesizathu athomu kuklama esekelwe imfundiso yokuziphendukela Rutherford, kanye lomkhuba wokuthi kwenzeka uma wedlula izinto ezishisayo elula ngokusebenzisa umumo womsebenzi nehele. Ngemva spectra-athomu kwakhiwa ngesikhathi esifanayo abe ukuma komugqa. Lokhu kushayisane imodeli uRutherford ye-athomu, owawuthi bohlu kwakuyodingeka ibe okuqhubekayo. Ngokusho imiqondo quantum Mechanics, ama-electron samanje nucleus kungukuthi kwachazwa ngokuthi iphuzu izinto kanye kokuba ngendlela efwini electron.

Iningi density yayo Locus ezithile emkhathini azungeze i-nucleus, futhi ubhekwa indawo nezinhlayiya aphila ngesikhathi esithile. Futhi, kwatholakala ukuthi i-athomu, ama-electron ahlelwe izingqimba. Isibalo izingqimba kungaba azimisele kokwazi Inani lenkathi lapho isici kule Periodic D. I. Mendeleeva System. Ngokwesibonelo, kuyi-athomu ye-phosphorus iqukethe 15 electron futhi inamazinga amathathu amandla. Inkomba, ebheka isibalo amazinga amandla ibizwa ngokuthi uthishanhloko inombolo quantum.

Yasungulwa Ucwaningo ukuthi amandla ezingeni electron, elise esiseduzane nengaphakathi amandla aphansi. Ngamunye igobolondo amandla uhlukaniswe sub-amazinga, futhi, esikhundleni salokho, phezu orbitals. Electron zitholakala endaweni orbitals ezahlukene ezifanayo ifomu amafu (s, p, d, f).

Ngokusekelwe osekushiwo, kusobala ukuthi ukuma efwini electron hhayi kungaba ngaphandle kokubonisana nomkayo. It akuvunyelwe kunqunywa ngokuvumelana esemkhathini inombolo quantum. Sifaka futhi ukuthi isimo electron kuya particulate nayo inqunywa amanani amabili - kazibuthe futhi sijikeleza izinombolo quantum. Eyokuqala kusekelwe Schrödinger kwesibalo futhi ephawula ukuma kwendawo efwini electron ngesisekelo ezintathu dimensionality zezwe lethu. Eyesibili inkomba - isibalo spin kuso ukunquma Ukujikeleza electron BakaJehova emhlabeni axis awo noma ngokubala kwewashi.

Ukutholakala-neutron

Ngokusebenzisa umsebenzi D. Chadwick, babebahlonipha 1932, sanikwa incazelo entsha ye-athomu kwamakhemikhali ne-physics. Ekuhloleni kwawo kwezesayensi ayebonisa ukuthi cleavage emisebeni polonium kubangelwa izinhlayiya kokuba ngaphandle kwemali, mass 1.008665 kwenzeka. Into ye entsha aphansi laqanjwa ngokuthi i-neutron. ukutholakala nokutadisha impahla yayo wakhe wavumela ososayensi Soviet V Gapon futhi Ivanenko ukudala theory entsha isakhiwo nucleus yama-athomu, equkethe ama-proton kanye neutrons.

Ngokwe-theory entsha, sokunquma ketshezi kwadingeka athomu elandelayo yakha iyunithi isakhi isici zamakhemikhali, ehlanganisa core equkethe ama-proton, neutron nama-electron ukuhambahambisa ke. Isibalo izinhlayiya esihle nucleus uhlale ilingane neenomborosikhundla timphawu chemical ohlelweni gqwa.

Kamuva UProfesa Zhdanov ucwaningo lwakhe waqinisekisa ukuthi ngaphansi kwethonya kanzima cosmic ngemisebe, nuclei-athomu ahlukaniselwe proton kanye neutrons. Ngaphezu kwalokho, okuye kwabonakala ukuthi amabutho ebambe lalezi zinhlobo aphansi-nucleus, kuba kakhulu amandla khudlwana. Ayakwenza amafushane kakhulu (komyalelo wokungabi 10 ^-23 cm), ngokuthi zenuzi. Njengoba kushiwo ngaphambili, ngo-MV Lomonosov wakwazi ukunikeza incazelo ye-athomu kanye engqamuzaneni ngesisekelo namaqiniso esayensi eyaziwa kuye.

Okwamanje neyaziwayo cabanga imodeli elandelayo: athomu siqukethe nucleus futhi electron ukuhambahambisa it in izindlela ngokuqinile kuchazwe - orbitals. Electron ngesikhathi esifanayo abonise property kokubili izinhlayiya namagagasi, okungukuthi, abe uhlobo ezimbili. I-nucleus ye-athomu bagxila cishe yonke isisindo salo. Siqukethe proton kanye neutrons elihlobene ne amabutho zenuzi.

Kungakhathaliseki kungenzeka ukuba uhlole athomu

It kuvela ukuthi athomu ngalinye has mass. Ngokwesibonelo, kubalulekile hydrogen 1,67h10 ^-24 lalibuye Kunzima ukucabanga ukuthi kuncane kangakanani lesi silinganiso. Ukuze uthole isisindo into, ungayisebenzisi izikali, futhi oscillator, okuyinto nanotube carbon. Ukuze abale isisindo athomu kanye engqamuzaneni ngaphezulu ubuningi elula iyona isisindo isihlobo. Likhombisa ukuthi mangaki izikhathi isisindo molecule noma i-athomu ezingaphezu kuka 1/12 kuyi-athomu ye-carbon, okuyinto 1,66h10 ^-27 kg. uquqaba Isihlobo-athomu zinikwa ishadi lesikhathi salezi izakhi zamakhemikhali, abasenakuphumula ubukhulu.

Ososayensi bazi kahle ukuthi atomic weight yesici chemical - inombolo isilinganiso mass isotopes. Kubonakala, ngokwesimo eyodwa yesici chemical kungase kudingeke uquqaba ezahlukene. Ngakho amacala we nuclei ka kuyizinhlayiyana kwesakhiwo enjalo efanayo.

Ososayensi bathole ukuthi le isotopes zingafani inani neutrons nucleus futhi nuclei ebayala ezifanayo. Ngokwesibonelo, e-athomu chlorine, kokuba mass 35 equkethwe neutrons 18 no-17-proton, futhi ngobukhulu obungaba 37 - 20 proton kanye 17 neutrons. Kunezici eziningi zamakhemikhali kukhona Izingxube isotopes. Ngokwesibonelo, izinto ezilula ezifana potassium, argon, umoya-mpilo eziqukethwe yayo ama-athomu Ukwakheka emelela 3 IKhompyuthaYami ezahlukene.

Ukunqunywa atomicity

It has ukutolika eziningana. Cabanga ukuthi kusho ukuthini leli gama kwamakhemikhali. Uma la ma-athomu yesici kumakhemikhali kungase okungenani okwesikhashana sodvwa, akusho bathambekele yakha izinhlayiya eziyinkimbinkimbi - molecule ke sithi izinto onjalo sibe isakhiwo athomu. Ngokwesibonelo, multi-esiteji chlorination ukuphendula methane. It is kabanzi organic zokwenziwa-chemistry ngokuba ezinkulu Halogen nemikhiqizo: dichloromethane, carbon tetrachloride. It is uhlukanise chlorine molecule kuya kuma-atom kokuba reactivity okusezingeni eliphezulu. Ayayona sigma izibopho e-molecule ye-methane, ukuhlinzeka ukusabela chain esikhundleni.

Esinye isibonelo salokhu inqubo yamakhemikhali kokuba ukubaluleka okukhulu embonini - ukusetshenziswa i-hydrogen peroxide lukalamula ukuze ubulale amagciwane kanye amakhorali ejenti. Ukunqunywa umoya-mpilo-athomu njengoba umkhiqizo cleavage ka-hydrogen peroxide kwenzeka izitokisi bukhoma (i-enzayimu catalase), kanye egunjini lokucwaninga esibhedlela. umoya-mpilo Atomic qualitatively kunqunywa impahla yayo okusezingeni eliphezulu antioxidant futhi ikhono lazo ukubhubhisa ejenti pathogenic: bacterium, isikhunta ezinhlamvu yabo.

Kanjani imvilophi yenuzi

Siye ngaphambilini wathola ukuthi iyunithi isakhi isici chemical has a isakhiwo eziyinkimbinkimbi. Emhlabeni kahle-charged nucleus izinhlayiya ilingise ama-electron ezimbi. UMklomelo KaNobel Niels Bohr, ngokusekelwe theory quantum yokukhanya, wadala yokufundisa, lapho kwebalingisi kanye ukuhlonza zama-athomu zimi kanje: electron ukuhambahambisa nucleus kuphela izindlela ezithile ilungiswe Kulokhu musa akhipha amandla. Bohr, ososayensi baye babonisa ukuthi izinhlayiya we microworld, ezihlanganisa ama-athomu nezinhlayiyana ezincane abangazilaleli imithetho esebenzayo imizimba ezinkulu - letigcogcwe ngaphambilini macrocosm.

Isakhiwo amagobolondo electron ka particulates ibilokhu wafunda e amaphepha ku quantum physics ososayensi ezifana Hund, Pauli Klechkovskii. Njengoba yaziwa ngokuthi ama-electron ukwenza ezinyakazayo ukujikeleza emhlabeni nucleus akuyona senhlekelele, kodwa izindlela ezithile isilungisiwe. Pauli bathole ukuthi ngezinsuku olulodwa amandla ezingeni ngalinye orbitals s yayo, p, d, f kumaseli electronic lingabe izinhlayiya engaphezu kwemibili omubi icala ka okuphambene spin ukubaluleka + ½ futhi - ½.

umthetho Hund wachaza indlela yokugcwalisa electron orbitals efanayo amandla ezingeni.

Aufbau isimiso, ngokuthi umthetho futhi n + l, uchaze ukuthi orbitals egcwele multielectron ama-athomu (izakhi 5, 6, 7 imijikelezo). Konke regularities ngenhla wakhonza njengephayona ngesisekelo ezincwadini izakhi zamakhemikhali adalwe Dmitriem Mendeleevym.

namachibi degree

Kuyinto eliyisisekelo ku-chemistry uchaza isimo athomu e-molecule. Inchazelo yesimanje degree of namachibi ukuzulazula kwama-athomu simiswe ngalendlela lelandzelako: ukukhokha moya zama-athomu engqamuzaneni, okuyinto kubalwa okusekelwe imiqondo ukuthi ingqamuzana likwazi kuphela ukwakheka ionic.

I namachibi kungenziwa zesikholwa inamba noma inombolo wamaqhuzu, a kweqanda, negative noma uziro. Ngo-athomu omoya-iningi izakhi zamakhemikhali babe namachibi ezifundazweni eziningana. Ngokwesibonelo, i-nitrogen kuyinto -3, -2, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5. Kodwa i-elementi ezinjalo, ezifana sasekhaya, kuzo zonke compounds yayo has state namachibi eyodwa kuphela elilingana -1. Uma linikezwa into elula, esimweni saso namachibi ka zero. Lokhu nenani chemical elula ukuyisebenzisa ukuze Ukwahlukaniswa izinto futhi ukuchaza nezici zabo. Ezimweni eziningi, izinga namachibi of chemistry esetshenziswa sokumisa zibalo redox ukusabela.

I izakhiwo zama-athomu

Ngenxa nalokho okutholwe quantum physics, yencazelo yesimanje ye-athomu, ogxile imfundiso yokuziphendukela Ivanenko futhi Gapon E, kulekelelwa la maqiniso alandelayo ngokwesayensi. Isakhiwo i-nucleus yama-athomu engashintshwa ngesikhathi zamakhemikhali. Ushintsho kuthinta kuphela umile electron orbitals. Ukwakheka kwazo ngokwama-akunakubangelwa eziningi izakhiwo ngokomzimba futhi amakhemikhali izinto. Uma i-electron eshiya orbit umile wabe esemkhathini nge ephakeme energy athomu enjalo ibizwa ngokuthi ube nexhala.

Kufanele kuqashelwe ukuthi electron hhayi kungaba isikhathi eside kulezi orbitals non-core. Ukubuyela orbit umile, electron likhipha lo quantum zamandla. Ucwaningo izici ezinjalo amayunithi isakhi izakhi zamakhemikhali electron ziyezwana, electronegativity, ionization amandla, ukuvumele ososayensi hhayi kuphela ukuchaza athomu njengenhlangano kubalulekile kuyizinhlayiyana microcosm, kodwa futhi wabavumela ukuchaza ikhono zama-athomu ukwakha isimo sizinzile futhi bazisa ngconywana yamangqamuzana ndaba, umphumela okungenzeka ukudala noma uhlobo ozinzile chemical izibopho: ionic, covalent-elimboze izindawo ezibandayo kanye apolar, donor-acceptor (njengoba covalent kunenze nisondelane zinhlobo) m etallicheskoy. Lesi sakamuva inquma izakhiwo ezibaluleke kakhulu ngokomzimba futhi amakhemikhali of izinsimbi.

Yasungulwa Ucwaningo ukuthi ubukhulu athomu ziyahlukahluka. Zonke kuzoncika engqamuzaneni lapho likhona. Through-X-ray umumo womsebenzi ukuhlaziywa ungakwazi ukubala ibanga phakathi zama-athomu kwakwakhe zamakhemikhali, kanye ufunde engaba kwesakhiwo isici iyunithi. Oluphethe amaphethini ushintsho radii ukuzulazula kwama-athomu equkethwe esikhathini noma iqembu izakhi zamakhemikhali, kungenzeka ukubikezela izakhiwo zabo ezingokwenyama futhi amakhemikhali. Ngokwesibonelo, ngezikhathi nge okwandisa nucleus yama-athomu ukushaja radii yabo ukwehla ( "kokucindezelwa athomu"), futhi ngenxa yalokho buthaka izakhiwo metallic zezakhi, futhi nonmetallic iyakhula.

Ngakho, ulwazi isakhiwo athomu kungacacisa ukuthi ngokunembile Izakhiwo kanye amakhemikhali zonke izakhi kufakwe ohlelweni gqwa izakhi.